How was music used as healing in Ottoman times? Music in the Edirne and Manisa darüşşifas, the makam belief and what science says about this tradition.
People who visit the Health Museum in Edirne often stop in a domed hall, listen to the sound of water running from the fountain and ask the same question: "Were patients here really healed with music?" Posts circulating on social media give this question an easy answer: Ottoman physicians knew which makam (melodic mode of Turkish classical music) was good for which illness, and they treated patients with knowledge we have since forgotten. The reality is both more interesting and more complicated. Ottoman music healing is a subject in which a care practice that can be traced through documents is intertwined with stories that have grown over time. In this article we look at what was actually done in the darüşşifas (historic hospitals), which pieces of information are supported by sources, which remain at the level of legend, and what today's science can say about this tradition.
What Did Ottoman Music Healing Mean?
Today, when we say "treatment", we think of diagnosis, a treatment plan and measurable outcomes. In the Ottoman period, however, illness and health were explained through the theory of the four humours inherited from Hippocrates and Galen. According to this theory, the human body contains blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile; when their balance is disturbed, a person falls ill. Psychological distress was also often linked to this imbalance. For example, a state we might call depression today could have been explained by an excess of black bile.
Within this framework, music was one of the tools believed to help restore balance. In other words, Ottoman music healing had a coherent logic within the knowledge system of its time. However, the theory of the four humours has been abandoned by modern medicine. To understand the practices of that era, we therefore need to read them in their own context, and to be careful when carrying them into the present.
There is another important distinction: having music played to patients and claiming that music cured an illness are not the same thing. The first is a practice that can be traced historically; the second was the belief of that era and has not been tested in today's sense.
Darüşşifas: Healing Houses Founded by Charitable Foundations
Darüşşifa, bimaristan, bimarhane and şifahane are different names for the same type of institution. These institutions were generally founded by charitable foundations (vakıf) and offered their services to patients free of charge. In Anatolia there are examples of this tradition dating back to the Seljuk period:
- Gevher Nesibe Darüşşifa (Kayseri): Built in 1206 by Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev I in accordance with the will of his sister, Gevher Nesibe Sultan. Also known as the "Twin Madrasa", it served as both a health and an educational institution, and today it can be visited as the Museum of Seljuk Civilisation. Although stories that music was used for healing here appear frequently on news websites, they could not be verified with documents in this research.
- Divriği Darüşşifa (Sivas): Built in 1228 in the name of Turan Melek, daughter of the Mengujekid ruler Behram Shah, it was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List together with the Great Mosque. The interpretation that the sound of water in the pool and the acoustics of the building were intended to calm people in psychological distress is widespread; however, this is an art-historical interpretation, not a tested finding.
- Amasya Darüşşifa: Built in 1308–1309, during the Ilkhanid period. The surgeon Şerefeddin Sabuncuoğlu worked here and in 1465 wrote his illustrated work Cerrâhiyyetü'l-Hâniyye (Imperial Surgery). Academic studies mention Amasya among examples of music being used in treatment, but the details of the method are unknown.
The Fatih and Süleymaniye darüşşifas in Istanbul are also counted among the institutions where music was used during the Ottoman period; however, the details of the practices in these institutions are not clear in the sources.
Edirne and Manisa: Music and the Sound of Water in the Sources
When Ottoman music healing comes up, the place mentioned most often is the darüşşifa of the Sultan Bayezid II Complex in Edirne. The complex was completed in 1488 and served for around four hundred years. Today it is open as the Health Museum of Trakya University.
The most important testimony about this institution is the Seyahatname (Book of Travels) of Evliya Çelebi. Evliya Çelebi writes that a group of musicians came three days a week and performed music for the patients. Encyclopaedic sources also report that patients in psychological distress were cared for with the sound of water, music played on instruments such as the ney, oud and rebab, and the scent of flowers. So the fact that music was part of patient care in Edirne is information supported by sources.
By contrast, the frequently shared statement that "a ten-member team of singers and instrumentalists played a different makam for each illness" could not be verified. Details like this are information added to the story over time, which appears to gain certainty the more often it is repeated.
In Manisa, a darüşşifa was added in 1539 to the Sultan Mosque complex begun by Ayşe Hafsa Sultan in 1522. Since Hafsa Sultan died in 1534, the building was completed by Suleiman the Magnificent. For roughly the last two hundred years of its life, this darüşşifa served as a mental hospital. News sources describe care there that included handicrafts, music and the sound of water. Today it is a museum of the history of medicine affiliated with Manisa Celal Bayar University.
When you visit a museum of this kind and come across a reconstruction or an information panel, it is useful to keep the following in mind: museum displays are prepared to convey the atmosphere of the era to visitors. Rather than assuming that every detail is based on a document, looking at which information comes from which source on the museum panels makes the visit both more enjoyable and more instructive. If you go with children, asking them "How do you think someone lying here would have felt hearing these sounds?" can turn history into an exercise in empathy.
What stands out in these two examples is that music is not mentioned on its own, but together with water, scent, handicrafts and a well-kept environment. Perhaps what really mattered was that patients were not locked away and forgotten, but lived in a place where an orderly routine was created for them.
The Makam and Temperament Belief: Which Makam Was Good for What?
The second topic that comes to mind with Ottoman music healing is the belief that certain makams were good for certain moods and illnesses. Popular sources claim that figures such as al-Farabi, Avicenna (Ibn Sina), Abu Bakr al-Razi, Hasan Şuuri, Gevrekzade Hafız Hasan Efendi and Haşim Bey wrote on this subject; however, this list has not been verified. Gevrekzade Hasan Efendi, for instance, is regarded as one of the last representatives of traditional Ottoman medicine; but the music treatise attributed to him is disputed, and encyclopaedic sources note that he had no direct connection with music.
Popular lists state that the rast makam is good for paralysis, rehavi for melancholy, buselik for headaches and zirgüle for sleep. Some lists also match makams with particular times of day. There are three things to know about these pairings:
- The lists contradict one another. The same makam is matched with one illness in one source and with an entirely different condition in another.
- These pairings have not been scientifically tested. The treatises of the era state that the rast makam is good for paralysis; this is not information supported by science today.
- The theory behind them has been abandoned. The makam–temperament relationship rests on the theory of the four humours; that theory is not how modern medicine explains things.
In an assessment made in 2011, a music therapy specialist criticised the way information attributed to al-Farabi and Avicenna was being used "with a tabloid logic, without conforming to scientific methodology". This criticism sums up well the difference between respecting a heritage and presenting that heritage as today's treatment.
What makes a tradition valuable is not that it is today's evidence, but that it shows us how people approached suffering.
The Difference Between What Is Documented and What Has Been Handed Down
Let us make a simple distinction that may be useful for history enthusiasts, students and museum visitors.
Supported by sources:
- That darüşşifas were founded by charitable foundations and offered their services free of charge,
- That Evliya Çelebi described music being performed for patients three days a week in Edirne,
- That music is reported to have been part of care in Edirne and Manisa, together with the sound of water, scent and handicrafts,
- That some treatises of the era drew links between makams and moods.
Remaining at the level of legend or interpretation:
- That a different makam was played for each illness,
- That the acoustics at Divriği were designed as a healing system,
- That there was a "music system" in isolation rooms in Kayseri,
- That particular makam lists are the work of particular physicians.
Why do such stories spread so easily? There may be several reasons. The first is nostalgia: compared with today's fast and exhausting health system, a world in which patients were greeted with the sound of water and music feels appealing. The second is cultural pride: we want to find something valuable in our own past, and that wish is open to exaggerating the details. The third is the format of short posts: two sentences that fit beneath an image do not carry caveats such as "according to reports" or "sources are disputed". In the end, an interpretation starts to be read as a firm fact after a few shares.
Making this distinction does not mean belittling the tradition. On the contrary, relying on information whose source is known allows us to embrace this heritage on firmer ground. If a teacher telling students about Edirne makes a habit of saying "according to Evliya Çelebi's account", they will have taught both history and critical thinking.
Ottoman Music Healing and Today's Science: What Is Known?
So is there a link between the practice in the darüşşifas and today's music-based work? In a sense, yes: both draw on the idea that music can touch a person's emotional state. But in terms of method, there is a great difference between them.
Modern music therapy took shape as a profession in the 20th century. After the world wars, musicians playing in veterans' hospitals in the USA led doctors and nurses to ask for musicians to be employed, which in turn created a need for training. Today researchers evaluate the effect of music through controlled studies. For example, the Cochrane review on depression (Aalbers et al., 2017) examined nine studies and 421 participants; it stated that music therapy, when added to usual care, may reduce depressive symptoms in the short term, but that the evidence is of low to moderate certainty.
The conclusion is this: when used within an appropriate framework and with professional support, music may support some people; but it does not replace medical treatment or psychotherapy. Recommendations of the "listen to this makam and that illness will go away" kind are not supported by this knowledge. For more detailed information on the place of music in mental health, you can read our article on music therapy. We look at the makam lists in detail in our article on the effect of makams on people.
How can we carry this heritage into everyday life?
Perhaps the most valuable lesson we can take from the Ottoman darüşşifas is that care should be holistic. For a person in psychological distress, their surroundings, the sounds they hear, being able to occupy themselves with a task and having someone visit them regularly all matter. Today you might think about it like this:
- Listening to music you love during a hard time may do you good; this is not a treatment but a self-care habit.
- Singing a folk song or a popular song together can be a way of building connection within the family or a community.
- Activities that keep the hands and body busy, such as handicrafts, gardening or walking, can create structure in the day.
- If you have an elderly relative at home, listening together to a recording of a fasıl (a classical Turkish music suite) or folk song from their youth can be a warm way to start a conversation. The aim here is not to cure an illness but to enrich the time you spend together.
- Approach commercial claims such as "frequency music", "the healing makam" or "makam prescriptions" with caution; they are not based on scientific evidence.
When Should You Seek Professional Support?
Interest in history is sometimes fuelled by a personal search too. Some readers researching this subject are actually looking for help for themselves or a loved one. Even if listening to music does you good for a while, it is wise to consult a mental health professional in the following situations:
- If listlessness, unhappiness or anxiety lasting several weeks is making daily life difficult,
- If there are marked changes in your sleep, appetite or energy,
- If you are searching online for methods such as "makam treatment" for a loved one, but putting off having them seen by a professional in the meantime,
- If you are having thoughts of harming yourself or ending your life. In that situation, do not wait; in an emergency, call 112 (emergency services).
Psychotherapy offers a safe space to address the difficulty you are experiencing in all its aspects. You can find general information about this process with adults on the individual therapy page. Where needed, an assessment by a psychiatrist may also be part of the process.
Frequently Asked Questions
Were patients in Ottoman darüşşifas really healed by music?
The sources show that in some darüşşifas, such as the one in Edirne, music was played for patients. However, there is no measurement or record, in today's sense, that this cured the patients. It can be said that music was part of care; its healing effect was the belief of that era.
What can be seen at the Health Museum in Edirne?
The darüşşifa of the Sultan Bayezid II Complex is open to visitors today as the Health Museum of Trakya University. Visitors can gain an impression of the approach to care with which this institution worked, through its domed spaces and the sound of water.
Is there any harm in listening to music based on makam lists?
Listening to a makam you enjoy is harmless in itself and may give you pleasure. The problem is relying on these lists and putting off a real health problem. Use music for enjoyment and relaxation; if an illness or psychological difficulty is involved, consult a professional.
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Eda Erkan Alapala
Klinik Psikolog. İstanbul Kent Üniversitesi Klinik Psikoloji Tezli Yüksek Lisans mezunu; bilişsel davranışçı terapi, çocuk merkezli oyun terapisi ve çocuk-ergen psikoterapisi alanlarında eğitimlerini tamamlamıştır.
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